Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review

• Maria Jose Morilla,
• Kajal Ghosal and
• Eder Lilia Romero

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 333–349, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.30

• also includes cancer imaging and diagnosis such as the MRI imaging agent Resovist, carboxydextran-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles approved for liver contrast-enhanced MRI102 [87]. Another 10% are nanocrystals, such as Tricor (approved in 2004) or Triglide (approved in 2005), used to

Vinorelbine-loaded multifunctional magnetic nanoparticles as anticancer drug delivery systems: synthesis, characterization, and in vitro release study

• Zeynep Özcan and
• Afife Binnaz Hazar Yoruç

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 256–269, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.24

• photothermal therapy on a single platform has been developed in the form of vinorelbine-loaded polydopamine-coated iron oxide nanoparticles. Vinorelbine (VNB) is loaded on the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles produced by a solvothermal technique after coating with polydopamine (PDA) with varying weight

• , magnetic response, and controlled drug release with photothermal effect brings a different perspective to advanced cancer treatment research. Keywords: drug efficacy; iron oxide nanoparticles; photothermal; solvothermal method; Introduction Cancer is a widespread condition characterized by the

• ’ magnetization cycle, as Bloch and Neel theorized [11][13]. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery, diagnosis, and cancer therapy have gained wider acceptance in biomedical applications [14]. They have received notable attention in clinical applications such as early disease diagnosis (e.g

Nanocarrier systems loaded with IR780, iron oxide nanoparticles and chlorambucil for cancer theragnostics

• Phuong-Thao Dang-Luong,
• Hong-Phuc Nguyen,
• Loc Le-Tuan,
• Xuan-Thang Cao,
• Vy Tran-Anh and
• Hieu Vu Quang

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2024, 15, 180–189, doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.17

• nanocarrier that can be loaded with the chemotherapeutic medication chlorambucil and magnetic resonance imaging agents (e.g., iron oxide nanoparticles and near-infrared fluorophore IR780) for theragnostics. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) was combined with the aforementioned ingredients to generate poly(vinyl

• of these systems to serve as medication and imaging agent carriers for cancer treatment and diagnostics, respectively. Keywords: cancer; chlorambucil; F127-folate; IR780; iron oxide nanoparticles; PLGA; theragnostics; Introduction Theragnostic nanoparticles (NPs) are a diagnostic and therapeutic

• Sigma-Aldrich. Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (11965092), fetal bovine serum (FBS) (MT35010CV), antibiotic (15-240-062), and trypsin (25-200-056) were purchased from Gibco, Fisher Scientific. All other solvents and reagents were of chemical grade. Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles Iron

Nanoarchitectonics of photothermal materials to enhance the sensitivity of lateral flow assays

• Elangovan Sarathkumar,
• Rajasekharan S. Anjana and
• Ramapurath S. Jayasree

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 988–1003, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.82

• , iron oxide nanoparticles are the most prominent ones because of their biocompatibility, low toxicity, ease of synthesis, and high photothermal conversion efficiency. The influence of a magnetic field can also increase temperature generation by such nanoparticles, which is called magnetic hyperthermia

• . Since iron oxide nanoparticles absorb in the NIR region, irradiating them with a proper source will produce heat, which makes them suitable for theranostic purposes [32][42][43]. Carbon nanomaterials: Carbon-based materials have been identified as promising candidates for photothermal applications

• photothermal properties are superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), which are commonly used as a magnetic hyperthermia agent. Because of the excellent absorption in the NIR region, they have been investigated also as photothermal agents [68]. Iron oxide nanoparticles have better stability and

Green SPIONs as a novel highly selective treatment for leishmaniasis: an in vitro study against Leishmania amazonensis intracellular amastigotes

• Brunno R. F. Verçoza,
• Robson R. Bernardo,
• Luiz Augusto S. de Oliveira and
• Juliany C. F. Rodrigues

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 893–903, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.73

• The main goal of this work was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of green superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) produced with coconut water for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania amazonensis. Optical and electron microscopy techniques were used to evaluate the

• effort on the search for new treatments for different diseases. Its main objective is to develop therapies with higher specificity, effectiveness, and safety, as well as less toxicity [6]. One interesting class of nanomaterials in medicine are superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). SPIONs

• . It is the first time that superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles SPIONs are observed inside the Leishmania spp and the parasitophorous vacuole. Chemical element mapping analysis by scanning electron microscopy confirmed the ferrous nature of the nanoparticle aggregates. These results prove the

Specific absorption rate of randomly oriented magnetic nanoparticles in a static magnetic field

• Ruslan A. Rytov and
• Nikolai A. Usov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 485–493, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.39

• simulations using the stochastic Landau–Lifshitz equation are performed to study magnetization dynamics of dilute assemblies of iron oxide nanoparticles exposed to an alternating (ac) magnetic field with an amplitude Hac = 200 Oe and a frequency f = 300 kHz and a static (dc) magnetic field in the range Hdc

• paper, numerical simulations of the stochastic Landau–Lifshitz equation are used to study the dynamics of magnetization in dilute, randomly oriented assemblies of iron oxide nanoparticles under the combined action of ac and dc magnetic fields. It is shown that for nanoparticles with a diameter D < 25 nm

• , the SAR of the assembly monotonically decreases with increasing Hdc, regardless of the angle between the ac and dc fields. Complete suppression of the SAR in this case occurs at Hdc ≥ Hac. Therefore, iron oxide nanoparticles with diameters D = 20–25 nm seem preferable for use in combined MPI-MH

Recent progress in cancer cell membrane-based nanoparticles for biomedical applications

• Qixiong Lin,
• Yueyou Peng,
• Yanyan Wen,
• Xiaoqiong Li,
• Donglian Du,
• Weibin Dai,
• Wei Tian and
• Yanfeng Meng

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 262–279, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.24

• oxidation, improve biocompatibility, enhance colloidal stability, and enhance targeting), enabling the ablation of tumor tissues by thermal energy [79]. MDA-MB-231 cell membrane-coated NPs loaded with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and PTX were designed for the combination treatment of

Two-step single-reactor synthesis of oleic acid- or undecylenic acid-stabilized magnetic nanoparticles by thermal decomposition

• Mykhailo Nahorniak,
• Pamela Pasetto,
• Jean-Marc Greneche,
• Volodymyr Samaryk,
• Sandy Auguste,
• Anthony Rousseau,
• Nataliya Nosova and
• Serhii Varvarenko

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2023, 14, 11–22, doi:10.3762/bjnano.14.2

• . Keywords: Fe(III) acetylacetonate; iron oxide nanoparticles; maghemite; magnetic nanoparticles; magnetite; thermal decomposition synthesis; Introduction Magnetic nanoparticles are increasingly being used in various fields thanks to the recent progress in their controlled synthesis and knowledge of their

• particles from oxidation. Moreover, the magnetic properties of magnetic nanoparticles (NPM) significantly depend on their size [8]. Iron oxide nanoparticles (>100 nm in size) are typically multidomain and ferromagnetic, whereas nanoparticles (<100 nm in size) are usually single domain [9]. The further

• mono- and dioxide, hydrogen, higher ketones, and hydrocarbons, as well as partial reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II), results in the formation of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles [35]. Excess of higher carboxylic acid that has not been bound to the iron salt, did not undergo thermolysis, and is likely to

A new method for obtaining the magnetic shape anisotropy directly from electron tomography images

• Cristian Radu,
• Ioana D. Vlaicu and
• Andrei C. Kuncser

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 590–598, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.51

• software. Regarding this, a test data volume filled with ellipsoids has been generated (Figure 3). Again, size, shape, position, and orientation of the ellipsoids have a Gaussian distribution in space, this time without the constraint of no overlap. Experimentally obtained system A system of iron oxide

• nanoparticles has been used for further tests. A −67 to +67 tomographic tilt series has been obtained with 1° steps. The series has been aligned using Tomviz [31] and ImageJ [32] software. The aligned series has been reconstructed using Genfire. The Rietveld refinement of the XRD spectra (Figure 4a) revealed

Photothermal ablation of murine melanomas by Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle clusters

• Xue Wang,
• Lili Xuan and
• Ying Pan

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 255–264, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.20

• , whereas exposure to and subsequent absorption of NIR light by iron oxide nanoparticles promotes NIR-induced hyperthermia [10]. Although magnetic hyperthermia has been widely used in biomedical research, it is subject to several limitations such as the need for sophisticated equipment, cellular confinement

Engineered titania nanomaterials in advanced clinical applications

• Padmavati Sahare,
• Paulina Govea Alvarez,
• Juan Manual Sanchez Yanez,
• Gabriel Luna-Bárcenas,
• Samik Chakraborty,
• Sujay Paul and
• Miriam Estevez

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 201–218, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.15

• many years, titania has been employed as a colorant in food, cosmetics, and sunscreen. Moreover, Ti-containing metal alloys have been widely utilized in medical fields, because the have a higher biocompatibility than other vastly explored metal oxides such as silica, manganese oxide, and iron oxide

• nanoparticles. TiO2 acts as a DNA intercalator in the cytoplasm, causing DNA damage by generating reactive oxygen species. The explicit cytotoxicity evaluation of TiO2, as well as of the incorporated drug molecules, is a major research concern. Moreover, optimal fabrication, in-depth mechanical stability

Thermal oxidation process on Si(113)-(3 × 2) investigated using high-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy

• Hiroya Tanaka,
• Shinya Ohno,
• Kazushi Miki and
• Masatoshi Tanaka

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 172–181, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.12

• experimental challenge toward elucidating the dynamic processes in oxidation. For example, the formation processes of iron oxide nanoparticles have been studied in detail using state-of-the-art X-ray scattering methods [4]. As a complementary method, variable-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (VT-STM

Theranostic potential of self-luminescent branched polyethyleneimine-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles

• Rouhollah Khodadust,
• Ozlem Unal and
• Havva Yagci Acar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2022, 13, 82–95, doi:10.3762/bjnano.13.6

• luminescent polymer. Therefore, it is usually tagged with an organic fluorophore to be optically tracked. Recently, we developed branched PEI (bPEI) superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION@bPEI) with blue luminescence 1200 times stronger than that of bPEI without a traditional fluorophore, due to

• sodium; superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles; Introduction Luminescent materials are of great interest in biotechnology and medicine since they can be utilized in sensors, labelling, and imaging [1][2][3][4][5]. Luminescent proteins, luminescent synthetic polymers, and quantum dots are the most

• theranostic nanomaterials, PAMAM and PEI were frequently coupled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) for drug/gene delivery combined with magnetic resonance imaging [31][32]. Usually, these systems were conjugated with other fluorescent tags for optical detection of nanoparticles in cells

Heating ability of elongated magnetic nanoparticles

• Elizaveta M. Gubanova,
• Nikolai A. Usov and
• Vladimir A. Oleinikov

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1404–1412, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.104

• magnetic hyperthermia. Basically, iron oxide nanoparticles were studied [5][6][7][8][9][10] because of their low toxicity and high saturation magnetization, although nanoparticles of other chemical compositions, such as metallic iron nanoparticles [11][12][13], and various ferrites [14][15][16][17] were

• optimal diameters occurs, since with an increased value of Kef, the height of the reduced energy barrier changes rapidly with a relatively small change in the particle volume. Note that earlier [30] a similar behavior of SAR was revealed for dilute randomly oriented assemblies of spherical iron oxide

• nanoparticles with saturation magnetization Ms = 350 emu/cm3 depending on the value of the effective uniaxial magnetic anisotropy constant in the range Ku = 1 × 104–5 × 105 erg/cm3. This fact shows once again that the dependence of the SAR of a dilute assembly of magnetite nanoparticles on the aspect ratio is

pH-driven enhancement of anti-tubercular drug loading on iron oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in macrophages

• Karishma Berta Cotta,
• Sarika Mehra and
• Rajdip Bandyopadhyaya

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1127–1139, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.84

• deployment in drug delivery is contingent upon controlled drug loading and a desired release profile, with simultaneous biocompatibility and cellular targeting. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), being biocompatible, are used as drug carriers. However, to prevent aggregation of bare IONPs, they are coated

• imparts multiple benefits – improved IONP stability, enhanced drug coating, higher drug uptake in macrophages at reduced toxicity and slower drug release. Keywords: drug-nanoparticle interactions; drug uptake; intra-macrophage; iron oxide nanoparticles; norfloxacin; Introduction Nanoparticles have taken

• the center-stage in drug delivery applications, wherein they can improve drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and may also increase drug accumulation in both animal cells and bacteria, proving beneficial to overcome drug resistance [1][2]. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), due to their

Use of nanosystems to improve the anticancer effects of curcumin

• Andrea M. Araya-Sibaja,
• Norma J. Salazar-López,
• Krissia Wilhelm Romero,
• José R. Vega-Baudrit,
• J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila,
• Carlos A. Velázquez Contreras,
• Ramón E. Robles-Zepeda,
• Mirtha Navarro-Hoyos and
• Gustavo A. González-Aguilar

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 1047–1062, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.78

• superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles functionalized with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and coated with chitosan (40–45 nm), were able to induce apoptosis (IC50 30 µg/mL) in HeLa (cervical cancer) cells by damaging the DNA and increasing caspase-3 [136]. Curcumin-loaded, pH-sensitive Janus magnetic mesoporous

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

• Sepand Tehrani Fateh,
• Lida Moradi,
• Elmira Kohan,
• Michael R. Hamblin and
• Amin Shiralizadeh Dezfuli

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 808–862, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.64

• ]. Various nanostructures have been developed for free radical generation under US irradiation. A novel nanostructure was constructed based on a BNN-type NO-releasing molecule and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION)-encapsulated mesoporous silica NPs (MSN) which could generate NO free radicals

Recent progress in magnetic applications for micro- and nanorobots

• Ke Xu,
• Shuang Xu and
• Fanan Wei

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 744–755, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.58

• field of biomedicine. Ceylan et al. [42] also used superparamagnetic nanoparticles to explore 3D-printed biodegradable [17][24] microrobots. These robots could be used for theranostic cargo delivery and release. Embedding superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles [43] in the form of nanocomposites into

• the microrobot will impart magnetizability. Magnetic field-based transport enables the accelerated delivery of a biomaterial to a target site by overcoming Brownian diffusion [44]. Since cobalt and nickel are quite toxic and iron oxide nanoparticles are considered to be biofriendly [45], embedding

• iron oxide nanoparticles [46] has advantages over magnetic surface coatings, such as cobalt or nickel. Diamagnetic nanoparticles Applying an external magnetic force to manipulate the MNRs has become a frontier field of research. Uvet et al. [47] proposed a new microrobot manipulation technology based

Differences in surface chemistry of iron oxide nanoparticles result in different routes of internalization

• Barbora Svitkova,
• Vlasta Zavisova,
• Veronika Nemethova,
• Martina Koneracka,
• Miroslava Kretova,
• Filip Razga,
• Monika Ursinyova and
• Alena Gabelova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 270–281, doi:10.3762/bjnano.12.22

• understood yet. Herein, we present a mechanistic study of cellular internalization pathways of two magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) differing in surface chemistry into A549 cells. The MNP uptake was investigated in the presence of different inhibitors of endocytosis and monitored by spectroscopic and

• involved in the internalization of polyethylene glycol-coated MNPs. Our data indicate that surface engineering can contribute to an enhanced delivery efficiency of nanoparticles. Keywords: bovine serum albumin; cellular uptake; magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles; polyethylene glycol; surface coating

• ; Introduction Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) as chemically inert material have been increasingly employed as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging [1]. The superparamagnetic properties of MNPs make them

Antimicrobial metal-based nanoparticles: a review on their synthesis, types and antimicrobial action

• Matías Guerrero Correa,
• Fernanda B. Martínez,
• Cristian Patiño Vidal,
• Camilo Streitt,
• Juan Escrig and
• Carol Lopez de Dicastillo

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1450–1469, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.129

• agents. Although the most studied nanoparticles with antimicrobial properties are metallic or metal-oxide nanoparticles, other types of nanoparticles, such as superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles and silica-releasing systems also exhibit antimicrobial properties. Finally, since the quantification

• modification, intrinsic properties and the type of targeted microorganism [18]. A special category of metallic NPs is superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) (e.g., magnetite (Fe3O4) and maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) NPs) whose antimicrobial activity increases upon the application of an external magnetic

• antimicrobial studies revealed good antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. flexneri, and S. aureus cells [123]. Superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are a special class of metal-oxide NPs with magnetic properties and excellent biocompatibility. Their shape

Transient coating of γ-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles with glutamate for its delivery to and removal from brain nerve terminals

• Konstantin Paliienko,
• Artem Pastukhov,
• Michal Babič,
• Daniel Horák,
• Olga Vasylchenko and
• Tatiana Borisova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1381–1393, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.122

• due to their magnetism and chemical stability [9][10][11][12][13]. Among a variety of other nanoparticles, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are used for magnetic resonance imaging in cancer theranostics and magnetic hyperthermia [9][10][11][14]. Controlled magnetic fields can lead to induced

• their instability in biological media where the nanoparticles may lose their biological coating [19]. The organic/inorganic agents form a shell (1–5 nm thick) around superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles interacting with their surface functional groups [14]. Sousa et al. studied the chemisorption

Magnetic-field-assisted synthesis of anisotropic iron oxide particles: Effect of pH

• Andrey V. Shibaev,
• Petr V. Shvets,
• Darya E. Kessel,
• Roman A. Kamyshinsky,
• Anton S. Orekhov,
• Sergey S. Abramchuk,
• Alexei R. Khokhlov and
• Olga E. Philippova

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1230–1241, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.107

• , for the first time, the effect of pH on the magnetic-field-assisted synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles was investigated. The results show that different nanostructures were formed upon varying the initial pH of the reaction mixture: spheres were obtained at a highly alkaline pH whereas rods were

• these nanocrystals still persists in the reaction products. Results and Discussion Main synthetic routes The effect of pH on the magnetic-field-assisted synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles was studied by adding 2 mL of the iron ion solution (1 M FeCl3 and 0.5 M FeSO4 in 0.1 M HCl) to 5 mL of NaOH

• diffraction patterns were performed using Origin 8.5. To calculate the area and FWHM, the peaks were fitted by Gaussian functions. Raman spectroscopy The crystalline structure and phase composition of the iron oxide nanoparticles were investigated using a Horiba Jobin Yvon micro-Raman spectrometer (LabRam

Influence of the magnetic nanoparticle coating on the magnetic relaxation time

• Mihaela Osaci and
• Matteo Cacciola

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1207–1216, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.105

• synthesized in small dimensions, which ensures low toxicity and the possibility for easy surface functionalization. A common method for synthesising iron-oxide nanoparticles includes chemical co-precipitation, which involves the simultaneous precipitation of magnetic nanoparticles and a solid matrix through a

• corresponding magnetic configuration of the system. For the numerical simulation, two widely known models have been used [19][20][21]. We started with a system of single-domain magnetic nanoparticles, consisting of spherical iron-oxide nanoparticles with uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, which have a lognormal

• direction connecting the i-th and j-th particles, Dij is the distance between the centres of the i-th and j-th nanoparticles, sij = Dij – (ri + rj) is the surface-to-surface separation between the i-th and j-th nanoparticles, and Aeff is the Hamaker effective constant for iron-oxide nanoparticles in water

Photothermally active nanoparticles as a promising tool for eliminating bacteria and biofilms

• Mykola Borzenkov,
• Piersandro Pallavicini,
• Angelo Taglietti,
• Laura D’Alfonso,
• Maddalena Collini and
• Giuseppe Chirico

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1134–1146, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.98

• ]. Functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles can also be used for photothermally induced bacteria eradication. It was demonstrated that the NIR-absorbing nanoparticles functionalized with recyclable iron oxide were capable of eliminating Gram-positive (S. aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli) quickly and

• effectively [94]. To this end, iron oxide nanoparticles were coated with catechol-conjugated poly(vinylpyrrolidone) sulfobetaine and then self-assembled with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene). The latter polymer is capable of absorbing NIR light while capturing the bacteria, effectively releasing heat under

Applications of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in drug and therapeutic delivery, and biotechnological advancements

• Maria Suciu,
• Corina M. Ionescu,
• Alexandra Ciorita,
• Septimiu C. Tripon,
• Dragos Nica,
• Hani Al-Salami and
• Lucian Barbu-Tudoran

Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1092–1109, doi:10.3762/bjnano.11.94

• .11.94 Abstract Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have unique properties with regard to biological and medical applications. SPIONs have been used in clinical settings although their safety of use remains unclear due to the great differences in their structure and in intra- and inter

• therapeutic efficacy, and safety studies. Keywords: drug delivery; drug targeting; endocytosis; medical; nanoparticles; superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs); toxicity; Introduction Nanoencapsulation technologies have been researched over the past several decades and have been widely

• microscopy (EM), iron oxide magnetic beads for the separation of cells and molecules, gold and silver nanoparticles as fiducials for EM, for immuno-EM labeling and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, or for gene transfection, liposomes for drug delivery, and gadolinium or iron oxide nanoparticles for